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| Representative Image, Selimiye Mosque, Turkey |
Introduction
The history regarding the origin of Ottoman Empire is stated upon Usman I, his father Ertugral Gazi and grandfather Suleiman Shah. Meanwhile, the early development meets with up to seven consecutive rulers from Usman I to Muhammad II. Three consecutive rulers Bayazid II, Selim and Sulaiman the Magnificent led the empire to its highest extent. However, the origin of the empire and its evolving development can be traced to a lengthier past.
The Ottoman Empire historically ruled over a span of continuous six centuries from 13th to 20th century (1299-1923). Obviously, it’s a matter of consolidated root and foundation which made the state survive for such a long period governing over a large part of the world. During the time of 15th and 16th, the empire controlled a vast region of three continents Asia Minor, North Africa and South Europe. The nomad turned Islamic empire waged the strongest army as a superpower of that long period. This superpower state, as a turning stone of the time, emerged following different factors behind. From survival to migration, life accommodation to land consolidation and foundation to establishment, all these trace a long passing of periods.
As the glory was long in life, the decline timeline of the Ottoman Empire was also so prolonged that it goes off its half of magnification. The stage of deadlock started from the 17th century onwards till the complete breakdown of the state. It was in a condition of stagnation for nearly three centuries. Here, the point is that the Sultanate was so strongly entrenched in its roots that it took a long time to be rooted out. So, what and how was the origin and early development of the Ottoman Empire that credited them with these attributions? How was the foundation of the state laid with a large expansion of territory that it remained steadily for that long historical period?
Origin and Ethnicity
Oghuz Turks
Traditionally, it’s well known that the founder of the Ottoman Empire Usman I related with the Kayi Tribe of Oghuz Turks. Oghuz Turks were an ethnic group of Turkic people consisting several sub-branches and mini-tribes descending from Oghuz Khan or Khagan who lived after more than 2000 BC.
It’s said that he was mentioned in different ancient manuscripts including Chinese with smooth biographical similarities. The genealogy of Oghuz Khagan is linked with Qara Khan. Oghuz Khagan divided his vast region of Central Asia among his sons resulting in division of empires.
Until the 11th Century AD, they were generally inhabitants in the surrounding region of Mongolia. The origin of many chief tribes in the region of Central Asia and modern-day Middle East are associated with the Oghuz Turks. Even some major historical states like Seljuks (Kinik branch), Anushteginids, etc. are originally associated with the ethnicity of Oghuz. Thus there are some certain sources which state the confederacy of Kayi Tribe of Usman I with the mainstream ethnicity of Turkmen Oghuz.
Kayi Tribe
As aforementioned, Usman, the son of Ertugral, is associated with the Kayi Tribe which comes under the ethnic people of Oghuz. As literally ‘Kayi’ means ‘strong’, the tribesmen were so influential and comparatively powerful.
Under the leadership of Suleiman Shah, the father of Ertugral, Kayi Tribe migrated from Central Asia to Asia Minor evading the destructive attacks of Mongols. The name of modern-day Ukrainian capital Kiev is said to be linked with the Kayi. Even today, the Kayi tribe is found living separately in the region of Anatolia, Turkmenistan and other Balkan regions.
Pre-Empire Elements
While finding the early foundation of the Ottoman Empire, historians bring forth shortly about ancestors of Usman I, the eponymous of the Ottoman Empire, whereas his father and grandfather made giant strides clearly going towards the establishment of an independent and sovereign state. Some other elements including regional rulers, great commanders and army chiefs were inevitable for the inception of the dynasty. Inadvertently, they are put behind the mainstream history of the empire which inexplicably can be called as pre-empire history.
Suleiman Shah (1165-1235)
As a savior of Kayi Tribe, Suleiman Shah is recorded in the history for his successfully evasion from the invasions and attacks of Mongols who raged the earlier Muslim states blatantly.
Suleiman Shah, the 13th Century Turk, was chief leader of his tribe Kayi. He led huge number of tribe people from the Central Asia Khurasan to Armania nearby Anatolia. In Asia Minor, he had to face casual attacks of Byzantine Empire as they settled nearby its territories.
He succeeded his father Kaya Alp as chieftain. After his accidental death by drowning in the Euphrates during a cross, his son Ertugral took over the position.
Ertugral Gazi (1235-1280)
After death of Suleiman Shah, Ertugral became Bey of the main Kayi Tribe following a separation from his other brothers. He, along with supporters, went further west into Anatolia and joined the service of Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. By his different achievements against the incumbent Byzantine and confronting tribes, Alauddin Kay Qubadh I of the Seljuk was pleased. He elevated the position of Ertugral among Seljuk and granted him a special province nearby Christian land Bursa in the northeastern border of Sogut for its governance.
After leaving a great influence, Ertugral died in 1280 AD in Sogut. Then his son Osman I took his place and led forward his mission of an independent state.
Other Factors
Counting some other elements behind, it’s obvious that during that period of the thirteenth century, especially in Anatolian regions, there was no strong Islamic state. Even the Seljuk Sultanate was divided into various principalities and became a fragile kingdom. The Sultanate was in its decline and dismantled completely in around 1302 AD by Mongol conquests.
A state stands with its strong army and strategic commandership. The Kayi Tribe thus had a well-built army of that time with full preparedness to march anywhere for their survival and shelter. Turgut Alp, the military commander who served continuously for Ertugral, Usman I and Orkhan, is one of many figures from great warriors.
After all, as they were settled neighboring Byzantine powers that centered in Constantinople, the Turks had to confront them occasionally. In this case, it’s stated that they availed the support of existing different Turk Beys, their principalities and Gazis for the sake of survival and religion which normally paved the way ahead collectively. The series of events, here, helped to establish themselves on their own.
Early Development and Proto-Imperial Era
The era between Usman I (1299) to 1453 AD during the rule of Muhammad II is known as proto-imperial period of Ottoman Empire. It required this long span of time to establish their own administration starting in Anatolia and spreading throughout the regions of North Africa, Balkans and Middle East.
In this time of more than 250 years, seven rulers with their all strength and strategies empowered the dynasty and took it from a small principality to a greatest kingdom of that period. Successively they were Usman, Orkhan, Murad, Bayazid, Muhammad I, Murad II and Muhammad II.
The decade, following the death of Bayazid in captivity of Amir Timur, was of despair and upheaval of Ottomans when they lost the power to Byzantines and Mongols. This period of chaos between 1402/3 to 1413 is known as the Ottoman Interregnum in history.
Rulers from the proto-imperial period with their certain contributions and involvement in territorial expansion, governance and administrative policies can be mentioned as in below:
Usman I (1288 - 1326)
- Become independent Amir (governor) of two districts Sogut and Eski
- Extended more forward to Bosphorus and Black Sea
Orkhan (1326 - 1359)
Capital: Bursa
- Bursa captured when his father was in death ill
- Declared himself as Sultan instead of Amir
- First to mint coin in his name
- First to campaign against Nicaea
- Karasai captured, 1336
- Nicomedia fell, 1337
- Foothold in Europe, Gallipoli captured
Murad (1359 - 1389)
- Suppressed revolt of Anatolia
- Marched into Thrace
- Adrianople captured
- Defeated the crusade army organized by Urban V
- Entered into Serbia, Bosnia and other regions of Bulgaria and Balkan
- Last wish of ‘victory’ before death in the going war against Balkan force coalition
Bayazid (1389-1403)
Capital: Bursa
- Known as ‘thunderbolt’ for his chivalry
- Repressed rising rivals in Asia Minor
- Kossova defeated, 1389
- Greece surrendered, 1397
- Fight between Amir Timur in 1400-42 in Ankara, he was captured and died in custody in 1403
Muhammad I (1413 – 1421)
Capital: Adrianople
- Following the death of Bayazid, fight for succession took place among his six sons. Muhammad I came out victorious and became Sultan in 1413 AD
- Suppressed the revolt of Dervishes spearheaded by the supporter of Musa Badruddin Mahmud and reorganized the broken Ottomans
- Rather than expansion, he maintained a policy of peace with Europe and patronized art, literature and architecture. However, he led an unsuccessful campaign against the West in Venice.
Murad II (1421 – 1451)
- Defeated his uncle Mustafa allied with the Byzantine emperor and different rulers of Asia Minor. Mustafa was taken into captivity and executed
- Led massive force in the city of Constantinople, captured it and again released due to chaos in Asia Minor and peace treaty with the Byzantine.
- The city of Salonika was annexed which was consecutively controlled by the Byzantine and Venice
- Raided Danube and Hungary but the Turks were defeated. Following this, Christian powers cooperated with Hungary, Bosnia, Wallachia, France, Germany and Venice led Crusade against the Ottomans under Pope Eugenius. The Turks were defeated each time and ended the treaty Szegedin between the two powers that freed Serbia and Wallachia from Ottoman control.
- Thinking on failure, he stepped down and gave the power to his fourteen years old Muhammad II in 1444. Christians again with alliances marched to attack but Murad II was called to lead the war. Again he took over the authority and defeated the rival powers successfully. Then he again abdicated himself but a revolt emerged in Adrianople (1446) which led him to take the control this time too. After the victory, he remained as emperor and led various campaigns against Europe.
- With a victory in the battle of Kossova (1446), the Turks again gain the control of Serbia and Bosnia.
- Contributed in art and architecture also and led the Ottoman to a great glory
Muhammad II (1451 – 1481)
- Known as Fatih or Conqueror for besieging the most coveted Constantinople from the Constantine XI Palaiologos in 1453. He made it his utmost priority and started preparation years by barricading all sea routes, arranging naval and bombardment. The Christian defenders fought bravely without gaining any aid from outside in vain.
- Making Constantinople base, he led many campaigns against Europe forward. Captured Wallachia and Venice in 1454, Serbia in 1456, Bosnia in 1461
- After the attack in Albania in 1461, Christians were attuned and called for crusades against the Ottoman
- The emperor reached even to capture the capital of Italy Rome but, he died before its execution
- Led wars in Persia and defeated Mongols
- During his rule, Muslims become masters in Mediterranean and Black sea
- His reign brought the Christians power at a halt and started a new historic course of the Islamic world
Conclusion
After the time of all these proto-imperial rulers, during the period of Salim I and Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire reached its peak of power governing over a vast region of Asia, Africa and Europe. It was the biggest power of that period in the world. Then the empire stuck for nearly three centuries in stagnation and ultimately fell down in 1923 AD marking the end of a great empire in world history.
References
The History of Islam, Professor Masudul Hasan
The Surreal Saga Suleyman Shah, David A. Graham, The Atlantic
Why is Suleyman Shah’s tomb so important, BBC, 2015
Boundless World History: The Middle East after the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, All About Turkey
The glorious history of the Turks and the Subcontinent, The Nation
Ottoman Empire, history.com
Ottoman Empire, Syed Muhammad Khan, Wolrd History Encyclopedia, 2020
Oguz People, Encyclopedia Britannica
Near East Kingdoms, The History Files
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Wikipedia
- This point article was prepared as an assignment for Islamic Civilization and Tamaddun Class of 2021 Degree 3rd Semester under Usthad Mubashir VP Hudawi, Darul Huda Islamic University, Bengal Off Campus
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